Glossaire

A high-voltage electrical system running at around 800 volts instead of the older 400 V level, so the same charging power flows at about half the current and with less heat. XPENG quotes roughly 12 minutes for a 10 to 80% charge on its 800 V G6, against 30 to 40 minutes for 400 V cars, and labels such as 900 V or 1,000 V describe the same approach at a higher voltage (Geely is developing a 1,000 V system). On an older 400 V charger, an 800 V car relies on a built-in voltage converter.

Charging from alternating current, the kind a home socket, a wallbox or a public post supplies. In the US scheme, Level 1 uses an ordinary 120 V outlet and Level 2 runs at 208 or 240 V with outputs from 2.9 to 19.2 kW. It is much slower than DC fast charging and suits overnight or workday charging.

Cruise control that speeds up and slows down by itself to hold a preset gap to the vehicle ahead. It assists the driver and does not take over: NHTSA reminds drivers that they stay responsible for driving with every such feature.

Advanced driver assistance systems: the sensors and software behind features such as automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control and lane keeping. These features support the person at the wheel, who remains in charge of the car. Since April 2025, China's industry ministry has told carmakers to describe such systems as "L2 assisted driving" and to drop terms like "autonomous driving" or "intelligent driving".

Automatic emergency braking applies the brakes on its own when sensors judge that a forward crash is about to happen, to avoid it or lessen it. NHTSA recognises two forms: crash imminent braking, which brakes when the driver does not, and dynamic brake support, which adds force when the driver brakes too little. A pedestrian version watches for people in the car's path.

Battery electric vehicle: a car powered only by a battery pack and electric motors, with no engine, that is recharged by plugging into an outside power source. The US Department of Energy also calls these all-electric vehicles.

The transport document for cargo carried by a shipping line, forming the contract between the owner of the goods and the carrier. A straight bill of lading cannot be transferred, while a negotiable (shipper's order) bill lets the goods be sold during the voyage. At the destination, the buyer usually needs an original copy to collect the goods.

BYD's in-house lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, launched in March 2020, made of long, thin blade-shaped cells inserted into the pack in an array. BYD reports that in a nail penetration test the cell gave off no smoke or fire and its surface stayed at 30 to 60 °C; these are the maker's own test results.

The battery management system: the electronics and software that track the battery and work out its condition. It estimates how full the pack is (state of charge) and how worn it is (state of health) from readings of current, voltage and temperature.

A way of stating charge or discharge current relative to a battery's capacity. At 1C a battery would fill or empty in one hour, at 2C in 30 minutes and at 0.5C in two hours. A "5C" charging claim therefore points to a theoretical 12-minute full charge.

China Association of Automobile Manufacturers, an industry body set up in 1987 and overseen by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission. Its monthly figures count wholesale deliveries from factories to dealers and cover commercial vehicles as well as passenger cars. For that reason its totals are not directly comparable with the passenger-car figures of the CPCA.

Apple's system that shows an iPhone's maps, calls, messages and music on the car's built-in screen, controlled by touch, the car's knobs and buttons, or Siri. Apple says support can vary by car configuration and region, so it is worth checking on the exact model.

Combined Charging System Type 2, or Combo 2: the Type 2 AC plug with two extra DC pins beneath it, so one socket takes both AC and DC fast charging. It is defined in IEC 62196-3 and is the DC connector used across Europe. A China-specification car with GB/T sockets needs an adapter to use a CCS2 charger.

A document confirming the country where goods were made, usually certified by a chamber of commerce in the exporting country. Customs use it to set duties; a preferential certificate can cut duty under a trade agreement, while a non-preferential one simply proves origin. Lebanese import rules ask for one when the commercial invoice does not state the origin.

An Incoterms rule for sea transport under which the seller pays the freight to the named destination port, while the risk passes to the buyer once the goods are loaded on the ship at origin. The letters stand for Cost and Freight, and insurance for the voyage is left to the buyer to arrange.

The same split of freight and risk as CFR, with the seller also buying cargo insurance for the sea leg; the letters stand for Cost, Insurance and Freight. The rule only requires minimum cover (Institute Cargo Clauses C, at 110% of the contract value), which leaves out risks such as theft. For valuable cargo, the broader Clauses A cover is commonly recommended.

China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle, the official test for energy use and range of cars sold in China, developed by CATARC and set out in standard GB/T 38146.1-2019. The passenger-car version lasts 1,800 seconds over 14.48 km, with an average speed of 28.96 km/h and a top speed of 114 km/h. This gentle pattern gives the highest range numbers of the main tests: InsideEVs puts CLTC figures roughly 35% above EPA ratings, with wide variation between models.

The seller's final bill to the buyer, listing the goods, their value and the amount due. Customs in the importing country rely on it to work out duties, and Lebanon asks for the original.

Standard steel shipping boxes, about 6.1 m or 12 m long; cargo volume is counted in TEU (twenty-foot equivalent units), so one 40 ft box counts as two TEU. Maersk lists 20 ft and 40 ft dry containers at 8 ft 6 in high and 40 ft high cube containers at 9 ft 6 in.

China Passenger Car Association, a group of carmakers that report their own sales figures. It covers passenger cars only, is followed mostly for retail sales to buyers, and also publishes wholesale and export numbers. Its data for the previous month usually appears in the first half of each month, a day or two before CAAM's.

Two ways of building an EV battery with fewer parts. Cell-to-pack (CTP) places cells straight into the pack without separate modules; BYD says its Blade pack uses space over 50% better than conventional LFP block packs, and CATL's Qilin battery is its third-generation CTP design. Cell-to-body (CTB), first used on the BYD Seal, turns the car's floor into the pack's top cover, so the battery also forms part of the structure.

A licensed person or firm that carries out customs business on someone else's behalf so that goods can be cleared. In the US, for example, customs brokers need a licence issued under federal law. For Lebanon, the US government's trade guide notes that local customs agents can help foreign exporters through the clearance process.

Charging with direct current from a large roadside unit, much faster than AC charging. The US Department of Energy describes units of up to 500 kW, where a session can take under 20 minutes depending on the car, the battery's state of charge and the equipment. China uses the GB/T DC connector for this, and Europe uses CCS2.

Dangerous goods: cargo that can endanger people, ships or the marine environment if it is not handled correctly. At sea, packaged dangerous goods must follow the IMO's IMDG Code on packing, container transport, stowage and segregation. Since 1 January 2026, vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries are carried as dangerous goods under the entry UN3556.

BYD's plug-in hybrid system, unveiled in January 2021, in which a strong electric motor does most of the driving and a 1.5-litre engine mainly works as a generator. In boost mode the engine and motor pull together, and the battery is a Blade pack.

The range rating published by the US Environmental Protection Agency for cars sold in America: an estimate of how far the car goes on a full battery. It is generally the lowest of the common ratings and the closest to real driving; InsideEVs finds WLTP figures about 22% higher and CLTC figures about 35% higher on average.

Extended-range electric vehicle: electric motors always drive the wheels, and a small petrol engine runs only as a generator to recharge the battery when it runs low. The difference from a PHEV is that an EREV's engine has no mechanical link to the wheels.

Government permission to export certain goods (in Chinese, chukou xukezheng). Since 1 January 2026, China requires one for pure electric passenger cars, under a joint notice from the Ministry of Commerce and three other departments. The rule covers cars driven only by electric motors, so plug-in hybrids and range extenders fall outside it.

Ex Works, the Incoterms rule in which the seller simply makes the goods available at its own premises. The buyer then arranges and pays for everything else, including collection, transport and the export and import formalities, which makes it the rule with the most obligations for the buyer.

Free On Board: the seller delivers when the goods are on board the ship at the named port of loading, and from that point the buyer bears the risk and pays the sea freight. Incoterms 2020 reserves FOB for sea and inland waterway transport.

A company that organises the transport of goods for a shipper, booking carriers and handling the paperwork, and it can combine sea, air, road and rail. Forwarders usually act as agents rather than moving the goods themselves. FIATA is the worldwide umbrella body for national and regional forwarder associations.

China's national charging connectors, specified in GB/T 20234.2 for AC and GB/T 20234.3 for DC. The DC plug differs from CCS2 in shape, pins and communication protocol, and the AC socket is not the same as Type 2 either. A China-specification car therefore needs adapters to use Type 2 or CCS2 chargers.

A vehicle imported legally but outside the maker's official distribution network in that country; the term is often used interchangeably with parallel import. The practical issue is support, since some official distributors decline warranty work on grey-import cars.

The retail price a carmaker officially sets for each model; in China it is published as the official guide price. It serves as a reference for dealers, who may sell below or above it depending on demand, and Chinese price cuts are often counted as changes to it.

The car's central screen and computer that run audio, navigation, phone connection and apps. Phone systems such as Apple CarPlay run on it, and aftermarket head units can add such features to an existing car.

A heating system that moves warmth from the outside air into the cabin, like an air conditioner run in reverse, instead of turning electricity straight into heat with a resistive heater. Recurrent estimates it gives 3 to 4 units of heat per unit of electricity, and its data shows 8 to 10% more winter range near 30 °F (about -1 °C). The advantage narrows in severe cold.

A conventional hybrid: a petrol engine works with one or more electric motors and a battery, but the car cannot be plugged in. Its battery recharges from the engine and from regenerative braking, with the aim of using less fuel than a petrol-only car.

Official approval that a vehicle type meets a country's technical, safety and emissions rules so it can be sold or registered there. Many countries use UN Regulations under the 1958 agreement run by UNECE's World Forum (WP.29), in which an approval from one member is recognised by the others. A single imported car without type approval may need an individual approval instead, as under Great Britain's IVA scheme.

The Harmonized System number that classifies goods for customs, maintained by the World Customs Organization. Its six-digit base is shared by more than 200 countries and economies and covers over 98% of goods in international trade; countries add further digits for their own tariffs. China's 2026 export licence for pure electric passenger cars refers to customs code 8703801090.

The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, the IMO's rulebook for carrying dangerous goods by sea, mandatory under the SOLAS convention since 1 January 2004. It is amended on a two-year cycle, and Amendment 42-24 became mandatory on 1 January 2026.

Eleven three-letter trade terms published by the International Chamber of Commerce that set out the tasks, costs and risks of delivering goods from seller to buyer. ICC first published them in 1936, and the current edition, Incoterms 2020, took effect on 1 January 2020.

Kilowatt, a unit of power equal to 1,000 watts. Charger output and motor power are both quoted in kW, so a 50 kW charger delivers energy at twice the rate of a 25 kW one.

Kilowatt-hour, a unit of energy: one kilowatt supplied for one hour. Battery capacity is quoted in kWh, and household electricity is billed per kWh, so the same unit tells you how much a pack holds and what filling it adds to the bill.

SAE Level 2 covers driver support features that can steer and control speed together while the driver supervises the whole time. "L2+" is an industry label rather than an SAE level, used for Level 2 systems with extras such as route-guided driving (NOA). In April 2025 China's industry ministry told carmakers to market these systems as "L2 assisted driving", and China's CAICT counted about 61 million passenger cars in the country with L2 features as of August 2026.

Lithium iron phosphate, a lithium-ion battery chemistry with an iron-phosphate cathode instead of a nickel-based one. Its cells hold less energy by weight than NMC (up to about 205 Wh/kg against 265 Wh/kg, per the IEA), but LFP packs are cheaper per kWh. It accounted for over 55% of EV batteries deployed worldwide in 2025.

Light detection and ranging: a sensor that uses pulses of laser light to measure distances and build a detailed 3D picture of what surrounds it. Chinese supplier Hesai said in January 2026 that lidar was fitted to 25% of new electric cars sold in China.

Lane keeping assist steers the car back if it starts to drift out of its lane unintentionally. Lane centering is a step further, using a camera to steer continuously and keep the car in the middle of the lane.

China's Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, which regulates the car industry. It was one of the four departments behind the 2026 export licence for pure electric cars, and in April 2025 it told carmakers to stop marketing Level 2 systems as autonomous or intelligent driving.

China's Ministry of Commerce, responsible for foreign trade policy, including export controls. It led the joint notice that made export licences compulsory for pure electric passenger cars from 1 January 2026, and the rules for exporting "zero-km" used cars that started on the same date.

A safety data sheet, the newer name for the material safety data sheet, is a standard 16-section document from a product's maker covering its hazards, safe handling, storage and emergency measures. Under the UN's GHS system and US OSHA rules, makers, distributors and importers must supply one for hazardous chemicals they sell.

New European Driving Cycle, the older laboratory test once used for range and consumption figures in Europe and China. It lasts 1,180 seconds over 10.93 km at an average of 33.35 km/h, and its results read optimistic, close to CLTC. In the EU, WLTP took its place for type approval under Regulation (EU) 2017/1151, and in China the CLTC replaced it.

New energy vehicle, China's policy category for battery electric, plug-in hybrid and fuel cell vehicles. Conventional hybrids sit outside the usual Chinese definition, although the IEA's policy explorer includes them in its China NEV group, so check which definition a statistic uses.

Nickel manganese cobalt, the lithium-ion chemistry family that dominates outside China: almost 80% of EV batteries deployed there in 2025 used nickel-based chemistries. NMC packs more energy into each kilo than LFP, which helps range and weight, but the IEA found LFP packs more than 40% cheaper per kWh on average in 2025.

A driver assistance function that follows the navigation route by itself while the driver supervises; makers use names such as NOA or NOP. Highway NOA handles lane keeping, merging and exit ramps, while city NOA also deals with traffic lights, pedestrians and mixed traffic. About 15 million passenger cars in China had NOA by August 2026.

Over-the-air update: new software sent to the car through its mobile connection, which can fix faults or change features without a workshop visit. China's regulators have told makers to cut back on frequent updates and to handle urgent fixes through recall procedures approved by the market regulator. Cars exported outside official channels have drawn complaints about limited software updates, part of the background to China's 2026 export licences.

A list of every package in a shipment with its contents, weights and dimensions. Customs officers may check the cargo against it and compare it with the commercial invoice, which it does not replace. Lebanon lists it among the documents needed to clear an import.

Genuine goods first sold by the brand, or with its consent, in one country and then imported into another without the brand owner's approval; they are not copies or fakes. For cars, this means buying a new car in another market, such as China, and importing it outside the local franchise network.

A colour-change film sold as PET, short for polyethylene terephthalate, a polyester, as an alternative to the PVC vinyl of classic wraps. Like other wraps it changes the car's colour and can be removed later. It is a styling film: paint protection film is the product made to take stone chips and scratches.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle: a battery that charges from an outside power source drives an electric motor, and an engine running on petrol or diesel adds range. It can cover a moderate distance on electricity alone, and unlike an EREV, its engine can also turn the wheels.

Paint protection film: a clear, durable polyurethane film applied over the paintwork to guard against stone chips, scratches and stains. It comes in gloss, satin or matte finishes, and colour versions add a new colour along with the protection.

A preliminary invoice the seller issues before shipment, used to negotiate and agree the deal. Once the goods are shipped, it becomes the commercial invoice used for customs clearance in the importing country.

When the car slows down, the electric motor works as a generator and stores energy in the battery that would otherwise be lost as heat. Frequent stops make the most of it, which is why EVs are more efficient in town than on the motorway.

Roll-on/roll-off shipping: vehicles are driven onto the ship over ramps, lashed to its decks, and driven off at the destination. Pure car carriers (PCC) and pure car and truck carriers (PCTC) are the RoRo ships built for this trade, and their capacity is measured in car equivalent units (CEU).

SAE International's J3016 standard grades driving automation from Level 0 (no automation) to Level 5 (full automation). Levels 1 and 2 are driver support features, with the person driving at all times, while at Levels 3 to 5 the automated system performs the whole driving task when engaged. The current edition, revised with ISO, dates from 2021.

A lithium-ion battery whose electrolyte is partly a gel-like or solid material instead of all liquid. NIO began series production of a 150 kWh pack with semi-solid cells from WeLion in April 2024, quoting up to 1,055 km on the Chinese test cycle, then stopped making it after a few hundred units because of low demand. SAIC also sells a semi-solid-state version of the MG4 in China.

State of charge: how full the battery is, shown as a percentage of usable capacity, much like a fuel gauge. The figure on the dashboard is an estimate made by the battery management system, not a direct measurement.

A battery that uses sodium, a widely available raw material, in place of lithium. The latest cells store up to about 175 Wh/kg, below LFP, but makers report better performance in cold weather. CATL plans to put sodium-ion products into mass production in 2026, with Changan among the first carmakers to use them.

State of health: how much of its original capacity a battery still holds, usually shown as a percentage of the new value. It falls slowly as the battery ages. There is no single agreed definition, and readings from a car's battery management system can be maker-specific, so they can differ between makers.

Thermoplastic polyurethane, the flexible and durable plastic used for paint protection film. Colour TPU films change the car's colour and protect the paint at the same time, and they are thicker than vinyl wraps.

The European AC charging connector defined in IEC 62196-2, often called the Mennekes plug, rated up to 70 A single-phase or 63 A three-phase. It has been mandated across the EU since 2014 and is the plug on European home wallboxes and public AC posts. CCS2 adds DC pins to the same design.

The UN number for vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries, in hazard class 9. Under IMDG Code Amendment 42-24, mandatory from 1 January 2026, these vehicles must be shipped as UN3556 rather than under the older generic entry UN3171. Vehicles powered by lithium-metal or sodium-ion batteries have their own numbers, UN3557 and UN3558.

Vehicle-to-grid: the car sends stored energy back into the electricity network, usually at times of peak demand. It needs a bidirectional DC charger that meets grid safety and shutdown rules, which V2L does not.

Vehicle-to-load: the car's built-in inverter turns battery power into household AC, so appliances and tools can run from an outlet on the car or an adapter in the charge port. No special charger is needed.

Vehicle identification number: the 17-character code that identifies one specific vehicle. It is based on the ISO 3779 standard, includes a check digit, and never uses the letters I, O or Q.

A charging unit fixed to a wall at home or at work that supplies AC power to the car through a cable, known in US terms as Level 2 equipment. Most US home units deliver up to 7.2 kW and need a dedicated 40 A circuit.

Thin film fitted to a car's windows to cut heat, glare and ultraviolet light, often tinted for privacy. The International Window Film Association says window films block up to 99% of the sun's UV rays.

Worldwide harmonised Light vehicles Test Cycle, the driving pattern used inside the WLTP test, built from real driving data from the EU, Switzerland, the US, India, Korea and Japan. Most cars fall in Class 3, for a power-to-mass ratio above 34 W/kg, whose cycle has low, middle, high and extra-high speed phases.

Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicles Test Procedure, the UN laboratory test (Global Technical Regulation No. 15) for consumption, emissions and electric range, which the EU adopted for type approval in place of NEDC through Regulation (EU) 2017/1151. Its range figures sit between EPA and CLTC, at about 22% above EPA on average according to InsideEVs.

A new car registered in China, often with almost no distance driven, and then exported through used-car channels (ling gongli ershouche in Chinese). Since 1 January 2026, such a car exported within 180 days of first registration must carry the maker's sealed service confirmation document naming the export destination. Some importing countries have moved to ban or restrict them.